Standard library / primitives

Bytes, math & arrays

-- Doc example: bytes, math, and numeric arrays / linear algebra (all pure).
intent: "doc example: bytes, math and arrays"

print("decode(bytes(\"Hi\")) = " + decode(bytes("Hi")) + ",  norm([3,4]) = " + text(norm(array([3, 4]))))

test "bytes <-> text are inverses; hex encoding"
    let b be bytes("Hi")
    assert_eq(decode(b), "Hi")
    assert_eq(decode(bytes("Hi"), "hex"), "4869")
    assert_eq(decode(bytes("4869", "hex")), "Hi")

test "base58/base32 round-trip; bytes <-> exact integers"
    assert_eq(decode(bytes(decode(bytes("Hi"), "base58"), "base58")), "Hi")
    assert_eq(decode(bytes("Hi"), "base32"), "JBUQ")
    -- bytes_to_int/int_to_bytes: big-endian, exact (protocol/signature integers)
    assert_eq(bytes_to_int(bytes("0400", "hex")), 1024)
    assert_eq(int_to_bytes(1024), bytes("0400", "hex"))
    assert_eq(int_to_bytes(7, 4), bytes("00000007", "hex"))

test "math operators"
    assert_eq(2 ** 10, 1024)
    assert_eq(10 % 3, 1)

test "numeric arrays + linear algebra"
    assert_eq(norm(array([3, 4])), 5)
    assert_eq(dot(array([1, 2, 3]), array([4, 5, 6])), 32)

Bytes§

bytes is raw binary, distinct from text. bytes(...) and decode(...) are inverses:

bytes("Hi")                 -- UTF-8 bytes
bytes("4869", "hex")        -- decode hex → bytes
bytes("SGk=", "base64")     -- decode base64 → bytes
bytes("SGk", "base64url")   -- decode base64url (URL-safe -_, padding optional; JWT/tokens) → bytes
bytes("StV1DL6", "base58")  -- decode base58 (Bitcoin/Solana alphabet) → bytes
bytes("JBSWY3DP", "base32") -- decode base32 RFC 4648 (Algorand convention) → bytes
decode(b)                   -- bytes → text (UTF-8 strict)
decode(b, "hex")            -- bytes → hex text (also base64 / base64url / base58 / base32)
sha256(x)                   -- raw digest (bytes); hex via decode(sha256(x), "hex")
bytes_to_int(b)             -- big-endian bytes → exact non-negative integer (empty → 0)
int_to_bytes(n, size?)      -- integer → big-endian bytes: minimal, or zero-padded to size
int_to_bytes_le(n, size)    -- integer → little-endian bytes of exactly size (binary structs, e.g. Solana u32/u64 LE)

text(b) shows a hex repr like bytes(48656c6c6f) — it does not decode. A secret never materializes through bytes(...). bytes_to_int is exact at any width (a 32-byte value never touches float), which is what signature/protocol integers need — see 38-blockchain.

Math§

Operators + - / % ; division is always float*. Constants: pi, tau, e, inf, nan. Numeric tower also has decimal (1.50d, exact) and complex.

Functions (pure, no capability; real or complex where noted):

• magnitude / selection (type-preserving): abs, sign, min, max, clamp(x, lo, hi) — abs(complex) is the modulus.
• roots / powers: sqrt, cbrt, hypot, pow. exp / log: exp, ln, log10, log2, log_base(x, base) (no bare log — it is a soft keyword).
• rounding: floor, ceil, round, trunc, round_to(x, digits).
• trig (radians): sin, cos, tan, asin, acos, atan, atan2(y, x), radians, degrees; hyperbolic: sinh, cosh, tanh, asinh, acosh, atanh.
• number theory (integers): gcd, lcm, factorial.
• introspection: is_nan, is_infinite, is_finite; type predicates is_decimal, is_complex, is_array, is_bytes, type_of.
• aggregates over a list (or array): sum, product, mean, std, var, median, percentile(x, p), histogram(x, bins?) → {counts, edges}.
• special functions (real only): gamma, lgamma, erf, erfc, beta.
• complex: complex(re, im), real, imag, conj, arg; sqrt/exp/ln/trig accept a complex and return one (sqrt(complex(-1, 0)) → 0+1i; complex(0, 1) ** 2 → -1+0i). Real argument → real result (sqrt(-1) → NaN).
• integers ↔ bytes: bytes_to_int(bytes), int_to_bytes(n, len) (big-endian), int_to_bytes_le(n, len).

Numeric arrays & linear algebra§

array([...]) builds a numeric array; + - / * are elementwise (with broadcasting). Linear algebra (2D, via faer):

norm(array([3, 4]))                          -- 5
dot(array([1, 2, 3]), array([4, 5, 6]))      -- 32
matmul(a, b)                                  -- matrix product
solve(A, b)   det(A)   inv(A)   eig(A)   svd(A)

Constructors and shape: arange(start, stop), linspace(start, stop, n), zeros(n), ones(n), eye(n), full(n, value), reshape(a, [rows, cols]), shape, ndim, size, transpose, trace.